Professional Development Portfolio Essay

My role within the workplace My primary role within the organization is as a shop assistant at Asda there are lots of various roles that require core skills to be able to do fulfil the job sufficiently. I have other side roles within my occupation other than my primary role as our organization operates a job enlargement system of human resource management so therefore I am trained on other areas of the organization aside of my primary job description. The skills I already process will be highlighted in the following SWOT analysis, it will also highlight areas that I have discovered that are of weakness currently also Identifying a problem The problem I have identified was a problem at work that occurred earlier in the year. The problem was that there was no policy regarding the allocation of available overtime; it was just made available on a board on a Saturday morning and was up to anyone to pick up as many/few shifts as they pleased. This led to a problem I identified, which was that for people that were not  contracted to Saturdays were at a disadvantage regarding the shifts that they could pick up, weather this be amount of shifts or certain days etc. From this I came to the conclusion that I would form a problem solving analysis upon this problem. The analysis I found most simple and useful was a SWOT analysis. Strengths My strengths in approaching this problem were; †¢I managed to identify that there was an issue and was causing slight friction within the workplace and more specifically our department †¢I realized that I could have skills to assist in resolving this problem †¢The strengths I could adapt to this situation are the ability to be articulate and speak to people in an appropriate manner †¢Another strength I have is to be able to explain things to people individually in a appropriate way they can understand †¢After evaluating my reflective practice I discovered that I was very strong at taking full responsibility for my actions for if a project fails, this would be an appropriate strength as posting and implementing new ideas at work can go wrong and it is right to accept this and reflect upon it by taking the positives and working on the areas that did not go so well Weaknesses My skills weaknesses in approaching this problem were; †¢My active approach to learning often hinders me from being pragmatic and reflective regarding input from others in work or problem solving situations †¢Another weakness of mine is my ability to evaluate practical points in order to make the most relevant points get across to becoming action †¢The time it takes me to notice problems of this nature is often quite a large time scale †¢Another weakness of mine is time spending to find relevant links between different things, this is relevant because problems can be spotted earlier if problems between links on projects are spotted and addressed early which limits their overall negative impact in an area of work, this weakness links with the earlier one of evaluating practical points Opportunities †¢However the opportunities that finding this problem were initially that it made the managers think of an alternative to the current operations of overtime allocation †¢It revealed personnel opportunities for myself that showed I have skills to find problems and niggles †¢Skills such as problem finding, conversational and interpersonal skills in order to communicate the problem to the right people, identifying a possible solution to the problem, and forming an input into a new policy that solved the problem and was fair to all †¢This problem also showed the opportunity of self realization of some skills that I had acquired and helped me reflect on skills that I needed to work on. Threats †¢One threat is I need to allocate my skills more accordingly to relevant situations †¢I also need to be more aware of the skills I have to offer †¢Threats to this work situation are that initially the management does not embrace the change accordingly †¢Also that they do not make the policy aware to the masses (0.1)Professional Development Action Plan Template As I develop my Action Plan, I will use the SMART model by ensuring all of my goals and action steps are Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic and within a specific Timeframe. Complete a plan for each of my goals. Goal: To implement a new policy at work in relation to allocating overtime in a fair and proper manner Relevance – how will this goal help me: It will help me be able to highlight strengths in skills that I already possess and will also show gaps in my skills and my weak areas, whilst assisting in solving a problem within the workplace What are the steps or strategies I will take?What is the realistic timeframe to accomplish the step or strategy?How will I evaluate each step or  strategy?How will I know the step or strategy has been accomplished? Firstly, to look if there is any overtime allocated practices or policies in place 3-5 daysTo analyze policies regarding overtime and shift patterns within the department to therefore begin to looking to find a solutionWhen I have compiled enough knowledge on our current policies, or after realizing if there are any current policies in place or not Thought shower some potential policies or means that could assist solving the issue 1 weekTo find as many potential solutions or potential policy changes that could help address the issueWhen there is enough relivent ideas and data that can potentially contribute towards the solving the problem Use a problem solving technique such as a SWOT analysis 2 weeksAllocate characteristics of the problem into strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats to find the problemWhen the technique is concluded and its findings are apparent Decide and allocate which solution is best to solve the problem and is most relevant to its characteristics 6 weeksFind the solution and start putting in foundations to build steps to it implementationWhen I have the final solution and have considered the methods to applying it without causing any other operational issues Look at the results of the SWOT analysis and thought shower to beginning to find a solution to the problem 4 weeksLook at the key issue in relation to the problem an then derive ways to solve it without causing any more problems of grievancesWhen a solution, or many solutions are tangible or available (1.0)Professional development Progress towards targets section 2 (BIS00093) (1.1)Introduction To develop my skills this year we have been set the task of a reflective piece of writing in relation to shown we tackled the targets we had set  earlier in the year to develop professionally and reflect on how we have improved our own skills both at work and in an academic place of vocation. In order to complete this we set out a set of skills that were both areas that we could develop and ones that were already strong but aspects could be built on and in my case I have related this skill set to my highlighted problem at work that I set earlier in the year in order to make my portfolio coherent which is in the first part of this portfolio prior to this report. (1.2)Introduction This professional development report is a progress report on the skills I have chosen to develop in my action plan which was highlighted earlier in the year, in order to get to the point where I might be in a position to solve my highlighted problem. This was to try and create a policy to fairly rationale the overtime that is available at my workplace of ASDA living at Cortonwood, Barnsley. The importance of reflection in this account cannot be underwritten, and the whole aim of this account is to show my reflection on my skills set and how I have developed my skills, and how other skills still require some development in order to move my professional development foreword. I highlighted seven skills which need addressing in order to fulfil my further professional development. (2.0)Approach to problem situations The first skill I highlighted was my ability to approach problem situations, Initially I believed that I needed to be more pragmatic and reflective in my approach to not just solving this problem but any problem in life, as my initial way of solving a problem is to just get stuck in and do things instead of checking and reviewing matters. This was also highlighted in my skills assessment audits. To develop and improve this skill my action plan was to go and initially speak to my peers at work about how they solve their problems and what approach they take. This would also help me open up other avenues and perspectives to problem solving. The conclusion I came to after divulging over many opinions and reflecting on my own failures in this skill was to keep persevering with my new approach of learning new ways to approach problem situations and then after refining these methods to learn to use appropriate ones for certain situations. For example you can approach  some problems by stepping away from the situation and being pragmatic and ordering objectives, but some problems require you to just take my original approach to all problems which are to just jump in and do things to solve the problems. Through my development I have been able to develop new approaches to problem situations such as finding myself solving a problem, and simultaneously being able to find other problems in the topic or situation and pose new questions regarding how to solve internal problems and issues within the bigger initial highlighted problem. (3.0)Evaluate relevant points The next skill I chose to develop was being able to evaluate relevant point, in relation to developing this skill I highlighted that I needed to focus on critically in order to complete a task more efficiently, rather than trying to do lots of different tasks simultaneously and never really completing the initial task that was set. My initial targets to combat this skill gap was to focus on one job at a time, I asked my manager at work to also asses and keep an eye on my work from the point of addressing this skills gap in this manner (appendix A, manager minutes). After concluding a few tasks I had a conversation with him regarding my development and he commented that I had improved my skill in relation to just committing to relevant points and tasks within work and was pleased with my approach to combating my skills gaps within the workplace. In reflection to this skill I believe it went very well and my professional development plan directly addressed the issue highlighted which is an addition to this development of this skill as I have been able to identify a skills gap and fulfil my own planning to a degree of success and formality. I have also been able to notice this skill of evaluating and addressing critical points and areas of a job come into play further and slowly has become a more refined skill of mine to the point where I am able to strip a task down to its bareness and simplify it for others to follow my structures and planning in there conquest to assist completing the job or project. (4.0) Time management The next skill I needed to develop in order to gain an overall solution to my problem was to develop my time management skills, which at my skills assessment were set at the lowest level of skill initially as having little  experience of this skill, I believe it is one of my main skill’s weaknesses and has been for some time, it is something I have always found very difficult. I have decided to address this skills gap by trying to use more time management tools. I have tried to develop this skill very slowly as I have limited and poor quality experiences of this skill nature in the past. Therefore initially I started off with simple methods such as keeping a calendar of my day to day events in order to give me at least some time management structure as I was basically very fluid beforehand with no structure whatsoever, I have not developed this skill any further as I am having some success with the calendar on its own as of present but it is a skill that I am going to look to develop further, particularly next year when I am studying for my honours top up degree as I believe this skill will be imperative at this point, however I can attribute the lack of development in this skill down to my previous poor levels of experience in this skill nature and the fact that I am a very impulsive and spontaneous type of person and therefore have never really considered time management as a way of progressing my skills platform and skills matrix. On reflection I believe I would be able to describe my development in the skill of time management as one That I have shown some development in but not of a sufficient manner towards assisting solving the problem, however I have being able to reflect on these issues and have shown how they can be overcome and stated reasons that it is essential to overcome these issues and given the skills gap a focus in order to assist its completion to be competent in the skill of time management. (5.0) Identifying problems The next skill I identified and chose to develop was the skill of identifying problems, I evaluated this as one of my stronger skills towards being able to solve my problem, it is also very applicable to any problem that needs solving as in order to solve a problem it needs to be indentified beforehand in order to focus resources on the problem in hand. I am quite strong at this area of skill, both in the workplace and academically. This has been noticed and occasionally complemented by my peers in both of these areas of my life. However it has been highlighted by my peers in the past that sometimes I am not very confident in expressing my abilities in regards to identifying problems and could push myself foreword more in relation to  this. I have reflected upon this and also noticed there are times where I identify problems but lack confidence to express theses problems to a superior due to a lack of confidence and diligence, however I also have reflected on my strength in this field and have made it more of a prerogative to continue my good work in relation to identifying problems in order to assist the overall bigger identified problem which is to compile a policy to allocate overtime at work out more fairly between employees in order that everyone gets a fair share of the hours available. In relation to my slight weakness in this aspect however I shall try to be more outgoing when expressing my opinion on problems or potential problems and assist in identifying other diverse problems that are not always directly addressed to me in the most appropriate way possible. In relation to this there is an abstract on my mind map (appendix B) that relates to this aspect of problem identification and what it can be used for. (6.0)Verbal communication The next area of skill I have identified that I will need to solve this problem set is the ability of verbal communication. As this is a problem that influences everyone on the department it is an area that will be quite sensitive in nature to the vast majority of people. Therefore being able to communicate ideas and possible ways that the policy could be moulded are essential, the ability of verbal communication and having this ability along with the needs to take on board feedback from organisational members is vital in relation to this policy. In truth I believe this has always been one of my strongest areas in skills regarding developing this policy at work. This is because I am articulate and am very good in changing both my language, demeanour and body language appropriately according to the situation, characteristic of the third person and the age and intellectual level of the person that I am speaking to, this is because I am an empathetic type of person when it comes to social exchanges of this matter. My only self criticism and gap within this skill is that I can sometimes go over the top and digress away from the original issue. On reflection I just need to continue being articulate and selective with my demeanours in relation to the type of social situation, I also need to keep taking on board feed back within verbal communication and being selective towards  which feedback I find useful and not so useful, and applying these ideas towards the final outcome and solution to the problem. Also, as previously mentioned I can digress away from the point in my verbal communications, they way I have tackled this aspect in my skills development is to for a small structure (Appendix C) to just keep my conversational points work related and retain focus on the subject matter in hand which is ultimately solving the problem and drawing up some sort of policy. (7.0) Influencing peers The next area of skill I have identified as an area of skill that will be required to solve my problem in the workplace is the ability to influence peers and others within both the organisation and life in general. I believe this skill is particularly applicable to this problem and is a key cog in order to get to a solution for the problem, as after taking into account the views of the departments employees and gaining their feedback it is only possible to use some of the best ideas and fuse them into the policy and therefore create a solution to this problem or issue, and for this reason alone it is important that influence on peers is a strong skill in order to influence one’s own ideas and impress them on the masses in the working environment in order to keep a harmonious working environment and not cause further problems by implementing a policy of this nature in the first place, so for this alone I believe this skill is a very important one for getting everyone on side to find some common ground for all so that the policy can be successful when, or if it is implemented. My level of skill on influencing my peers is quite high, in situations both at work and in other areas of life such as sport. However during this experience of solving or trying to solve my problem I have found a few cracks in this skill even though it is one of my stronger skills. I highlighted the fact that I needed to be more confident to press my influence on others and try to become a motivator which I can potentially do. To do this I have tried to take more charge in workplace situations and influence others into potential directions that they can go with their own projects at work, I have also approached management about things and issues I believe have occurred at work, for example I believe the budgeting programme for our business being historical is incorrect given the businesses size and turnover. This shows  that I have tried to be influential on all levels of personnel at work and have built up the confidence to approach members of the organisation that are higher in the hierarchy about myself with issues I believe could be addressed. On reflection I believe I have move this skill foreword slightly and improved in the areas I have highlighted that I would like to in my plan, however I would also like to take my influential persona and use it to my own benefit in other areas if and when I graduate to have as a skill that employers might find as an attractive one. (8.0) Plan work The final skill I believe is essential to finding a solution to this problem presented is having the ability to plan work and have plans that are both flexible for external influence but structured towards attaining a result in the workplace that satisfies the needs of both myself and the organisation. This skill has often been a challenging one for me as I stated earlier regarding my time management that before I attended university I often worked on spontaneity and impulse and never really planned my time and planning work also falls into a similar category in regards to planning work as the go hand in hand in some conduct. As I have highlighted this as a weakness or gap in my current skills I have drawn up a detailed action plan with this in mind. I have highlighted in my plan to spend more time planning both at work and at university and to do this I have stated that I need to write more things down and be more formal as regards to planning. After writing this in my plan and reflecting on how I will approach this matter I decided to start using the built in diary on my phone as I believed it was a more practical solution to the planning aspect, I have had to attempt to be innovative in order to improve this skills gap as I don’t like the idea of carrying a diary or journal around as I will not keep it up to date and potentially could lose it. I have however drawn up my formal plans at work in a small notebook and kept line of my tasks and have found this useful, particularly on busy days when there are many tasks it is easy to forget something that could be essential when you have no or little structure as regards to planning and planning time towards certain critical tasks. It has been very applicable to the problem that has been highlighted, as in order to form the policy and therefore a general solution to the problem it is very important that the stages to get there are put in place and planned  accordingly. This is for many reasons, particularly if something goes wrong during getting to the solution as it is easier to trace the steps that are written down or recorded in some way than if there is no structure at all which would make the locating of the key area that created to problem a near impossibility, and would make it very

Membranes: Cell Membrane and Purple Dark

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The speed of diffusion is influenced by molecular size ( the smaller, the faster) and by temperature ( the warmer, the faster). † Through this lab experiment we were able to see that diffusion did happen faster in the warm water by s eeing the fastest change in color of the contents inside the baggie. B. Did the sizes of the molecules affect their movement? Yes, the smaller the molecules (KI) were able to permeate thru the bag where as the bigger molecules (water) and corn start could not permeate thru the membrane bag due to their large size. C.Give an example of diffusion between: a solid and a liquid; a gas and a liquid; between two different solids. (solid/solid) Gold and lead- over time, molecules of lead will diffuse into the gold and vice versa. (solid/liquid) Sugar and water- Sugar will dissolve in water. (Gas/liquid)Perfume and air- the scent will spread. Exercise 2: Osmosis Observations DataTable 2: Potato Mass| Contents in TestTube| Initial Mass of Two Potato Strips| Final Mass of Two Strips| MassDifference| % Change inMass| Class Average Percent Change in Mass (if available)| a) Distilled Water| 3. g| 5g| 1. 4| 38%| | b) 1. 0 M Sucrose| 3. 4g| 2. 1g| -1. 3| -38%| | c) 0. 8 M Sucrose| 3. 6g| 2. 1g| -1 . 5| 42%| | d) 0. 6 M Sucrose| 3. 5g| 2. 6g| -. 9| -25%| | e) 0. 4 M Sucrose| 3. 5g| 3g| -. 5| -14%| | f) 0. 2 M Sucrose| 3. 4g| 3. 7g| . 3| 9%| | Questions A. Describe how the potato cylinders changed in their turgidity. Identify which of the solutions were isotonic, hypertonic, and hypotonic in relation to the potato. a) Distilled Water| No change in turgidity. Hypotonic solution. | b) 1. 0 M Sucrose| Very turgid. Hypertonic solution. | ) 0. 8 M Sucrose| Turgid. Hypertonic solution. | d) 0. 6 M Sucrose| Moderately turgid. Hypertonic solution. | e) 0. 4 M Sucrose| Slighty turgid. Hypertonic solution. | f) 0. 2 M Sucrose| No change in turgidity. Hypotonic solution. | B. What would happen to a red blood cell placed in distilled water? Why? Distilled water is a hypotonic solution which means in contains no solutes. According to the text (p. 72), â€Å"Cells placed in a hypotonic solution plump up rapidly as water rushes into them. † This means that a RBC would eventually pop. C .Create a graph of your experimental data by plotting the percent change in potato mass against sucrose molarity. Label the x-axis as â€Å"Molarity of Sucrose,† and the y-axis as â€Å"% Change in Mass. † D. Determine the molar concentration of the sucrose contained in the potato strips by using the graph created in question C. At the point where the molar concentration of the sucrose in the potato would be isotonic to the sucrose, there would be no net change in the potato mass. On the graph, this is located at the 0% change. Draw a line from this place on the y-axis to intersect the line.From the line draw a line down to the x-axis to find the molarity. Molar concentration of sucrose in potato = . 3 M Exercise 3: The Effect of Solvents on Membrane System Observations Data Table 3: Color Intensity from Damaged Beet Cells| TestTube| Solution Treatment| ColorIntensity0 – 10| Condition of Beet (turgid, flaccid, etc. )| a| 70% Isopropyl alcohol| 10| Very flacid| b | 35% Isopropyl alcohol| 7| bendable| c| 17. 5% Isopropyl alcohol| 3| Less firm| d| Distilled Water| 0| Very firm. | Questions A. What is the reasoning behind the use of egg whites?How does this part of the experiment relate to membranes? Egg whites would provide a lipid layer mimicking the cell membrane layer of a cell. Also egg white are largely composed of water this would also mimic the cell membrane. B. What do the results of test tube e tell about the effect of isopropyl alcohol on egg whites? The effects of the alcohol on the on the egg whites were that it made the chunky as almost if they had been cooked. C. What do the results of test tube f tell about the effect of isopropyl alcohol on oil?How does this relate to membranes? The oil sinks in relation to the alcohol. This is related to membranes due to the hydrophilic and hydrophobic aspects. Lipids arrange so that the hydrophobic â€Å"tail† regions are isolated from the surrounding polar fluid, causing the more hydr ophilic â€Å"head† regions to associate with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. D. Based on the results from test tubes a through d, which of the solutions caused the most damage on the membrane system? Explain your answer.The solution with the highest concentration of Isopropyl alcohol cause the most damage to the membrane because exposure to high concentration of organic solvents would disrupt membrane integrity. E. 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Key Elements of HR Strategy of Disney and How it is Linked With Its Corporate Strategy - Case Study Example Training and development of the employees are tailored in a manner which allows the company to train and develop the employees in a manner which delivers consistent value to the customers. However, this has been only possible after the involvement of top management of the company at all levels of management. Â  (Perkins, Shortland and Perkins, 2006) However, it is clear that reward and recognition system may not have been clearly defined. The overall recognition criteria were not well-defined and it is also evident that the employees were allowed to communicate with each other at designated places and during particular times. Â  (Miner, 2007) The overall communication and relationship between the employees and the managers were excellent as managers clearly outlined the expectations from the crew members and what was exactly required of them. Learning and development was the key point which was integrated into the overall HR strategy of Disney as employees were specifically trained in various areas of operations while at the same time allowing them to build on their multi-dimensional expertise. The overall general HR policies regarding hiring, training and developing employees were well-defined and most of the tasks were performed by in-house employees hired and developed over the period of time. (Kreitner, 2009) More focus on developing employees and their personalities so that they can deliver superior value to customers. A supported environment for employees has been created which fosters responsibility and creativity. Leadership and communication skills, which are vital for working in an environment which is client facing. Employees are trained in a manner which improves therefore skills. HR Strategy is further focused towards empowering employees to face the clients in real time. HR Strategy is aligned with the overall corporate strategy as it supports the overall vision of the company. Overall, HR Strategy of Disney was focused on hiring, training and developing employees who can deliver more value to the customers.

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The concept of beauty in anthropology - Essay Example Due to this it is considered a great challenge to find a uniform definition of beauty because what a person finds beautiful is not the same as another. Beauty is based on personal perspective and own concepts honed by own culture and society. It is a universal word but has many definitions and meaning. Scrotun (1) cited the idea of Pato and Plotinus that beauty is an ultimate value  ­Ã‚ ­Ã¢â‚¬â€œsomething that people pursue for its own sake and for the pursuit of which no further reason is needed to be given. As Santayan stated beauty is truth, the expression of the ideal, the symbol of divine perfection and the sensible manifestation of the good. According to Scruton (5) beauty pleases us, it is always a reason for attending to the thing that possesses it, and it is a subject-matter of judgement: the judgement of taste where it is all about beautiful objects not the subject’s statement of mind. Beauty is always associated with aesthetics and is always associated with arts. Stout as cited by Van Damme (40) defined aesthetic as a branch of philosophy dealing with the beautiful and the tests by which the beautiful may be judged. Beauty can be found in different works of art. Paintings on the wall that give joy to the audience; sculptures that please the eye and resonate the beauty that can be touched; and other works of art that are considered as important possessions because of beauty. According to Santayana (126), our judgment of aesthetic is intrinsic when based on the perception of beauty and based on the character of immediate experience and never consciously on the idea of eventual utilities of the object. Judgements about moral worth, on the contrary, are always based, when they are positive, upon the consciousness probably involved. However, in Africa, art forms are made to illustrate ugliness (Van Damme 41). This is the definition by the word anti-aesthetic introduced by R. Thomson

History of the Cold War Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

History of the Cold War - Research Paper Example The Soviet power was never able to expand much under the influence of the U.S agenda. It was under the leadership of Mikhail Gorbachev that Russia began to undergo a political change which could not be handled and thus led to a political turmoil. The United States itself did not play a direct role in the collapse of Soviet Union but it did play an indirect role in the collapse. This essay would further analyze different events which led to the occurrence of cold war (Leffle & Westad, 2010). After the World War II it was seen that the United States and Russia underwent a competition in the field of economics, race and politics to gain superiority in the world. The Cold War for Soviet Union was to take control of the communist nations under their policy whereas the United States had the aim of removal of communism from the world. The relationship of the Soviet Union and America was never to the par as the communist nation was an ally of the Germans before it attacked them. Communism wa s prevalent in the Soviet Union since its birth under the leadership of Lenin. This was followed by the rule of Joseph Stalin who further enforced communism over the states that fell under the jurisdiction of the Union. It was then that anti communist policies started to escalate in the United States creating hate amongst the masses. Yalta Conference which took place in February 1945 was start of rough relations between the two superpowers of the world. The American President at that time was Truman who was strictly against the communists and this led to the worsening of bilateral relations between the two countries. The invention of atom bomb and the use of it in the World War II created fears for the Russian government which further led to the Cold War (Painter 2002). After the victory in World War II events followed which led to the Cold War among the superpowers. The Iron Curtain Speech was delivered by Winston Churchill on March 5 1946. He urged the United States for a coalitio n against the union because of their policies against the democracy of the world. He stated that â€Å"From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. Behind that line lie all the capitals of the States.... and all are subject in form or another, not only to Soviet influence, but to a very high and increasing measure of control from Moscow† (4 Gottfried). In 1946 it was found that Soviet spies were in America looking for information regarding the atomic bomb. Moreover an agreement was violated by the Soviet Union when they did not withdraw their troops from Iran because of its resources of oil. Instead a region of Iran was annexed by the Soviet Union which later came to be known as the Soviet Socialist Republic of Azerbaijan (Leffle & Westad, 2010). In the latter part of the 1950s it was seen that the Russian President got even more furious at the actions of the United States. After the World War II it was seen that se veral of the nations faced the problem of famine. It was here that the United States launched a plan known as the Marshall Plan to provide the famine struck places with food and other supplies. The foreign ministry of the Soviet Union replied to the Marshall plan in a negative manner stating it as an act sought to infiltrate the

Claims for Damages Arising from the Tort of Negligence Essay

Claims for Damages Arising from the Tort of Negligence - Essay Example The paper tells that in law, any person who has suffered loss or injury has a likelihood of receiving compensation from making a claim of that loss or injury if it can be proved that the loss or injury suffered was partly or wholly as a result of negligent omissions or commissions of certain acts (s) of another party or person. The compensation is aimed at not necessarily making up fully for what had happened to the person but rather to enable the injured party move on with his/her life with less difficulty. If appropriate, claims should be made for damages that arise from a given situation. In the UK, there is legislative provision governing personal injury and loss as well as damages for personal Injury and non-pecuniary loss. Consultation Paper No 140. Damages, in law, are defined as an award often in form of monetary consideration paid to a person who has suffers injury or loss as compensation. Compensation is crucial in most cases since the loss or injury suffered has possibly c hanged the ability of a person to undertake normal duties or activities hence limiting the ability of that person to meet his or her needs. For instance, compensation is vital in an event that a person has suffered a disability. Also, compensation can make a significant difference to life of person(s) who has lost a relative in an accident by providing financial support to the person(s). Besides, compensation is in some cases necessary to fund medical care for an injury or illness that is ongoing and was caused by the accident in question. Moreover, compensation or damages is essential in making up for earnings that may have been earned due to an accident caused by another person due to negligence hence denying the person who has suffered the loss ability to earn money to pay his or her bills.4 In order to appropriately advise Cheryl, Lizzie, David and Bellisima Company on whether they have claim/claims for damages arising out of the scenario, and against whom they would make such claims, it is important to understand some aspects of damages that relate to their scenario. First, in their scenario, in an event that their claims become successful they will be entitled to compensatory damages, that is, they will be paid to compensate them for financial loss and injury suffered from the accident. There are two major types of damages namely general damages and special damages.5 General damages are those that aim at compensating the claimant(s) for the specific injury suffered which is of non- monetary nature. These damages are only awarded in claims that have been made by person(s) who have suffered personal injury; for instance, on personal injury caused by negligence of another party.6 Example of general damages include disfigurement, impairment of physical or mental capacity, physical or emotional suffering and pain, loss of enjoyment of life, and loss of companionship among others.7 It is imperative to point out that quantifying these damages may prove difficult and judges mostly base awards on amount placed on similar cases previously. Therefore, how do the courts quantify personal injury claims? As has been noted, such quantification is not easy and most judges rely on similar previous cases to award. In the UK, solicitors in most cases refer personal injury as general damages for suffering and pain. Just like most judges, they quantify personal injury claims based on previous awards on similar cases made by the courts.8 The following factors guide quantification of personal injury claims: one, the extent and nature of the injuries suffered; consideration will be made on similarities of the injuries of the case in hand and cases that are similar and had been decided by courts previously.9 Normally, the extent of the injury usually corresponds to the damages awarded; that is, greater injuries will result to greater awards. Since quantifications are based on precedence, decisions of higher courts are always binding to the lower

When Socrates meets Confucius Essay Example for Free

When Socrates meets Confucius Essay When Confucius met Socrates It is world-renowned that Confucius and Socrates are the top-ranking philosophers. They are both authorities in their own field of their countries. Nevertheless, there have been some arguments about the conflicts between the Chinese culture and Western thoughts. Speaking of the differences between the Chinese and the west, there must be some reasons for it. Initially, in my book, the conflicts stem from the different history. We all know that European civilization consists of immigration culture, that is to say, Europe is a mixture of people around the world and diverse customs. Wildness is their nature. Another factor I reckon attributing to the differences is the different life styles they lead. For instance, it is plain to see that people in Europe often go traveling or camping with their family, even if they have to loan. Hence, enjoying the present may be their first choice. Chinese, on the contrary, can work diligently first in order to make enough money and enjoy their life. See, here’s the difference. So, what should be our attitudes towards the conflicts? From my perspective, we can learn part of the western culture. Cuz we know that the world is becoming increasingly globalizing, so, we need to prosper our culture to catch up with the western culture. Meanwhile, we ought to spread our culture to the world. Since we have splendid culture, we are obliged to make it known to others. No matter whether it is Confucius or Socrates, what we need to do is to treat them objectively and equally. And that’s my opinions about the topic. Thanks.

Examining Strategies For Improving Medication Administration Nursing Essay

Examining Strategies For Improving Medication Administration Nursing Essay Providing care for the patient is the responsibility of nurses. Nurses are the one who are close with patients. They are responsible and accountable to make sure that the treatments and needs of patient are fulfilled. Medication administration is a part of the nurses responsibility in order to make sure clients get the correct medication as supposed. Medication administration error is a universal health care concern.Thus the strategy in improving medication administration system is important to enhance safety. The administration of medication by nurses is the final step in a process that involves multiple steps carried out by a number of health professionals (medical practitioners, pharmacists and registered nurses). The accuracy, efficiency and safety of administration of medications rest primarily with nurses. Medication administration is an activity that is prone to errors, in part because of the development of new medical devices and new drug products that available to fulfill the demand in health care setting. Thus to prevent medication administration error, six rights should be main concern for the nurses in giving medication. There are many type of medical error that leads to injury and may jeopardize patients safety. According to Hughes and Ortiz (2005) the most common type of medical error that happen universally is medication error. Senior citizens are at the highest risk of being affected by this type of errors, since they are the largest consumers of medication (New Tech Media, 2006). However, this is especially true in regards to medication errors. A proper understanding of the contributing factors that increase medication errors is the first step toward preventing them. There are many factors, such as training deficiencies, undue time pressure, and nursing shortages that may have contribute to medication errors. The amount of nursing education and the years of nursing experience are two factors that may have relationship to medication errors. Due to the fact that nursing staff is a large cost to hospitals, these organizations are constantly trying to manage expenses. This is supported by Yang (2003 ) who states nursing professionals typically represent the largest employee group in hospitals, and have become a primary target for redesign measures. Consequently, medication errors are costly and seem to be proportional to the staffing of nurses. Since nurses make up such a large portion of the staff population, it is important to understand the incidents that influence behind these medication errors. These issues of medication errors were present even at the time when Benjamin Franklin founded Americas first hospital and he stated that patients ultimately suffer and die without good nursing care (Clarke, 2003). 1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT Health care professionals work is hectic and stressful. All the heavy workload had causes the nurses to pay much less attention in giving proper medication administration to patients.I discovered during my clinical posting that sometimes the nurses tend to take for granted so as whether the patient did consume the medications given or not after leaving the medication on the patients bedside . Occasionally proper procedure was not followed by nurses for medication administration. It happens when the nurses just copy down the name of patient in a piece of paper during pass over the report , without rechecking in the patients medication administration record. This unintentional act sometimes will lead to medication administration error when bed of the patient is exchange with another patient or the patient has been transferred to the other ward or may be discharged from the hospital . There is also happen an error due to some of the nurses borrowing medication from another patients cart and administering an unlabelled medication or syringe. This improper practice will harm the patients and can cause medication administration errors. On the other cases, the nurses do not follow the correct time for medication administration. For instance, they just merely combine the medication that should be given at 4p.m with 6p.m. In that case, the effectiveness and toxicity of medication can be query. Thus, medication error can be some way again linked to an inconsistency applying the six rights of medication administration. Definition of terms Nurses A person educated and trained to care for the sick or disabled; One that serves as a nurturing or fostering influence or means (C.L.R James,2009 ) Working experience Work experience is the linking of a period of activity in a work setting (whether paid or voluntary) to the programme of study, irrespective of whether the work experience is an integral part of the programme of study(Harveyet al,2002) Incident Any other incident in which researcher is unsure about exposure potential. 1.3 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY Medication administration is a crucial part in nursing . Having a study concerning the incident of contributing factors that lead to medication error is important as this study creates awareness about the medication error and it consequences will affect patients safety. Such prevention methods could be taken to reduce the cases of medication error in hospital setting. Through this study, the management team of the hospital may take a serious action to solve the problem arised. Besides that, the nurses may realize the significance of medication administration process to overcome the factors that contribute to medication administration error. Furthermore, nurses need to perform their duty in ethical manner and obey the correct standard procedures as guided by the ministry of health. The function beyond the limit of nursing practice acts or ones ability is to endanger clients life will put the nurses open to malpractice suits such medication administration error. Therefore, it is crucial part for nurses to always be aware of entire the medication administration process in order to maintain the safety of the patient. 1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVE 1.4.1 General Objective The general objective for this study is to provide reasons about incidence of factors that contribute to medication error among the nurses. This study also helps to determine the barrier towards medication error which can used as guidelines for the nurses to be more caution on certain situation during administering medication in the hope of facilitating improvements to medication administration processes. 1.4.2 Specific Objective The specific objectives of conducting this research are: 1) To identify the most factors which contribute to medication error 2) To indicate the relationship between working experience with all the contributing factors which potentially lead to medication error 1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS What are the commonest factors that contributed to medication error perceived by nurses? Is there any relationship between working experience with all the contributing factors which potentially lead to medication error? 1.6 ADVANTAGES OF RESEARCH 1. This study able to provide reasons about factors that contribute to medication error among the nurses. 2. This study helps to determine the barrier towards medication error which can used as guidelines for the nurses to be more caution on certain situation during serving medication LITERATURE REVIEW Introduction Nurses are the group of health care providers who are closest to the patients. They have a major responsibility in administration of medication for patients, particularly in the wards. The issue of medication administration error (MAE) within the acute-care setting has long been the focus of research. Since nurses are intimately involved in the delivery of medications and the final person who occupy the link on medication administration, thus they are accountable for the responsibilities in medication error. It is important for nurses to understand the factors that contributed to medication administration errors in view of the fact that the burden of reporting medication error falls heavily on nurses. Prevalence of medication error Medical errors harm an estimated 1.5 million people and kill several thousand each year in the United States of America (Joint Comission International ,2007).In Malaysia the Malaysian government does emphasize on the medication safety whereby the government encourages researchers to conduct research on medication safety (Institute for Health Systems Research ,2008). In view of the fact that the prevalance of medication administration error is increasing globally, the serious action should be taken to minize it from occur. Medication The oxford Concise Medical Dictionary stated that, medication is a substance that is administered by mouth, applied to the body, or introduced into the body for the purpose of treatment (p.417). Medication Administration In administration of medication, the nurses must follow several principles that have been set up to prevent medication administration error. While administering medication, the nurses should implement the Six Rights to make sure the effectiveness of the drug effects and gain improvement in treating the disease. The six rights are involved before, during and after giving the medication. According to Bennet (2008), the six rights of medication administration includes the following; right medication, right dose, right client, right route, right time and right documentation. It is a must for the nurses to follow the standard protocol outlined for the implementation of medication administration. Medication administration error An article from joint comission international (2007) stated that errors are common as medications are procured, prescribed, dispensed, administered, and monitored but, they occur most frequently during the prescribing and administering actions. Since, the parts of administering process are bound to nurses job, so that they are responsible for their action and conduct. Mayo et al (2004) found that some medication errors are not reported because nurses are afraid of the reaction they will receive from the Nurse Manager. Hence, the real incident of medication error that occurred cannot be measurable since the nurses do not take responsibility to report the incident. Medication usage is a multidisciplinary process, which begins with the doctors prescription, is followed by the review and provision of medications by a pharmacist, and ends with the preparation and administration of the medication to the patient by a nurse. Inadvertent errors or accidents are encountered if there is a break down at any stage in this process, which leads to overwhelming consequences for the patient and for the career of the healthcare professional (Gladstone 1995). The impact of medication errors can be devastating to the confidence and self-esteem of the healthcare professional. Consequently, healthcare professionals are unwilling and indisposed to report any medication error unless there is an obvious harm to the patient. Factors that contribute to medication error Nurses need to prioritize significant responsibilities for safe patient care. In this hectic and stressful environment, serious medication errors are appearing significantly as a basis for successful malpractice cases against nurses (Lilley et. al, 2005). Proper medication process and system analysis approach are the essential link in the prevention of medication errors from occurring in health care setting. Asim and Nagy ( 2007) in their study showed that there were statistically significant differences in responses across the participants years of experience and the current clinical working area about the medication error to occurred. Research done by Fu et al.(2007) showed that medical wards and intensive critical units are the commonest areas for medication error. Knowledge and practice Henry (2005) revealed that, most of the types of medication administration errors occurring are due to omission of dose, wrong doses. The other study done by Fu et al. (2007) showed the wrong dose is at the highest to occur. Undeniable to say that, most of the errors can occur when the nursing duty during medication administration is not taken seriously. In addition, medication error can occur due to nurse attitude who do not check whether the right patient received the right medication. Medication administration error can occur when the nurse failed to check the patients arm band with the patients medication administration record or calling the patient by name to make sure the right patient receiving the medication. According to (Nancy et.al 2003 ; Ulanimo et al, 2007) through their observations that had been done, they found that nurses were failing to compare the patients wristband with the medication administration record before giving the medication to the respected patient. Whats more, spelling errors and the similarities amongst the appearance different medication can cause confusing to the nurses. Unfamiliarity with drug medication such as new drug name with similar drug packing can cause medication administration error Fu et al (2007). The potential for medication errors will increase and leads to injury to the patient. Cases reported by FDA-Food and drug administration (2008); medication errors associated with Flomax and Volmax, Zantac and Zyrtec caused patient to suffer. For that reasons, unfamiliarity with the medication can cause the medication error to occur. Besides drug administration, there are other factors that lead to medication errors taking place such as interruptions while administering the medication. In the research done by Pape et al.( 2005) ,it mentioned that conversations with other staff members and visitors or multi-tasking that occurs during medication preparation and administration can result in errors. Thus, the normal procedures for checking the six rights are easily neglected. So that, reducing unnecessary conversation and other distractions is an important aspect in administering medication safely to patients. Personal issues Abandon the six essential rights of administering the medication, are latent conditions evidenced to be a part of factors that contribute to medication error. Personal factors mentioned in connection with prescribing errors included physical and mental well being, skills, and knowledge. However, there are few associated factors that contributed to medication error to happen among nurses. The factors are time pressures, fatigue or exhaustion a part of nurses (Mayo et al; Ulanimo et al, 2007). Study by Nick Barber et al (2002), 18 interviewees reported that they had felt tired, hungry, or unwell, and that these factors might have contributed to the error. A considerable percentage of reported that they omitted to give medication or gave at the wrong time, and also indicated that other nurses gave incorrect medication or incorrectly administered treatments; practice issues which were related to the nursing shortage and causing moral distress (Marj.T Mrayyam,2011). Healy and McKay (2000) also found workload to be most significantly correlated with mood disturbance. However, Payne (2001) did not find a significant relationship between workload and burnout, although levels of burnout in her study were lower than in related studies. The reasons for this variation are unclear, but seem likely to include differences of stress hardiness (Simoni Paterson 1997), of coping mechanisms (Payne 2001), of age and experience (McNeese-Smith 2000) or of the level of social support in the workplace (Ceslowitz 1989, Morano 1993, Healy McKay 2000). Hospital setting and workload The terms hectic, hassly, and busier than average were used to describe workload. Sometimes, workloads made nurses change their usual practice to try and save time From the study, it was shown that, it is not only the practice itself that contribute to medication administration error but other external factors can also contributed to medication errors such understaffing, inexperience nurses, design deficiencies, and inadequate equipment while administering the medication( Carlton Bleggen, 2006). Nurses and workload is one of the major factors that should be considered .Most of the hospitals are lacking of nurses and this small issues will lead to big impact of nurses practice. Stordeur et al. (2001) attempted to rank stressors in order of severity of impact, the main ones being ranked as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ High workload, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ Conflict with other nurses/physicians, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ experiencing a lack of clarity about tasks/goals, à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢ a head nurse who closely monitors the performance of staff in order to detect mistakes and to take corrective action. Lack of staff Staffing issues were also mentioned and included inadequate staffing, the effects of new or locum staff, and attending to another doctors patient. Providing cover for absent colleagues not only increased workload but also meant that care was being given for patients the doctor did not know. Several doctors drew the distinction between those patients whom they had admitted and knew throughout their stay, and those whom they had to take over for only part of their treatment. The most commonly used unit-level workload measure is the nurse-patient ratio( Pronovost PJ et al (2000). The nurse-patient ratio can be used to compare units and their patient outcomes in relation to nursing staffing. Previous research provides strong evidence that high nursing workloads at the unit level have a negative impact on patient outcomes (Olson V et al, 2004). Hospital nurse staffing is a matter of major concern because of the effects it can have on patient safety and quality of care. Nursing-sensitive outcomes are one indicator of quality of care and may be defined as variable patient or family caregiver state, condition, or perception responsive to nursing intervention (Needleman et al, 2003) Briefly, medication administration error should be avoided because direct results of the error can cause harm to the patient as well as increased health care costs. Moreover, indirect results include harm to nurses in terms of professional and personal status, confidence, and practice. Thus, to maintain the professionalism in delivering of care to the patient, medication administration process should take seriously among the nurses. In a 1999 study conducted by the Institute of Medicine, entitled To Err Is Human: Building a Safer Health System, It is estimated that medication errors cause over 7,000 deaths annually. This chapter will explain on the research methodology of the study consist of research design, population, sample, setting and data-collection instrument. 2.1 Research design Research design is an overall plan for conducting study on order to answer the research questions (Polit et al; 2001: 67). The research designs signify the steps which will be used in conducting the research. According to Burns and Grove (2001:223) , research design is a guideline for the research process in order to achieve the intended result which will be the reflection of reality. Polit (1999:155) state that the research design will includes the most important decisions in research methodology that researcher makes in conducting the study. This study used cross-sectional; quantitative non-experimental correlation study using assisted-administered questionnaire to reveal the question incident of contributing factors that lead to medication error. 2.2 Population and sampling Population is an entire group of people that is interested to the researcher as define by Brink (1996:132-133).Burns and Grove (2001:366,810) define population as the whole set of individuals who meet the sampling criteria. A sample taken from population and it will include in the study which representing research population, if random sampling procedures has been adhere to. Random sampling would give every individual in the whole population the same and unbiased chance of participating in the study. Simple random sampling will be used in this study. The respondents are consisting of Registered Nurses in Hospital Tengku Ampuan Rahimah, Klang (HTAR) .The sample will be taken randomly from several discipline in HTAR. In order to get significant result, a sample size calculation formula has been used to determine the size of the sample for this study. Inclusion criteria for respondents are: Registered Nurse with Malaysia Nursing Board Understand Malay and English language and generally healthy. Have working experience at least 1 year. The participants are involves in direct patient care. Have an experience in administering the medication Exclusion criteria area: Unregistered nurses with Malaysia Nursing Board Have working experience less than 1 year Do not have an experience in administering medication 2.3 Research setting The study setting will be conducted in HTAR. The unit chosen is medical ward, surgical ward, Intensive Care Unit, Obstetrics and gynecology ward, Pediatrics ward, Emergency Department and orthopedic ward. HTAR is chosen because affordable cost and time constrain for me. 2.4 Study period Data collection February to April 2011 Data Processing/ analysing and writing up April to May 2011 Grantt Chart (refer to appendix ) First phase Screening for initial data from hospital record (secondary Data) in Hospital Tengku Ampuan Rahimah Identify the discipline units to be study Second phase Pilot study done to confirm feasibility of the study Collection and analyzed the questionnaire Third phase Obtain consent from subject The data are collected by using questionnaire in order to obtain the information regarding the study Fourth phase Analyze the data collection and writing up 2.5 Data collection Dempsey and Dempsey (2000:195) define questionnaires is a paper and pencil data collection instrument filled in by the respondents for the purpose of the research study. Characteristics of questionnaires had been listed out by Gillham (2000: 5-8) as below: A questionnaire is less expensive than interview. A lot of sample can be taken within short period of time. Questionnaires can reduce cost of using telephone and travels thus it is also feasible to be used by researchers who have full time jobs. Questionnaires are an easy way to get more information within a limited period of time. Respondents able to complete the questionnaires at their own time without pressure. Anonymity can be guaranteed. Reassuring the respondents that no one will know any feedback from them. This aspect was deemed to be very important in this study as the respondents could be reassured that they could state their honest opinions about factors might contribute to medication error without fear that employer would take action to them if their knowledge level is low. The research contents will display out numbers, facts and figures .No names should be mentioned not even the researcher nor did the supervisor know who provided which answers for specific questions. No different questionnaires are distributed; all questionnaires are standardized to limit the bias. 2.5.1 Development of questionnaires The development of questionnaires was based on the literature review (Chapter 2) and other research instrument used in similar studies. The questionnaire is compiled and discussed by researcher and supervisor. Changes suggested were implemented. Most of the changing pertaining to rephrasing specific items so that each items had only issues to address rather than multiple issues. There is part of questionnaires that had been corrected and combined from previous study to ensure the objective of study answer. 2.5.2 Pilot Study Pilot study was done to determine feasibility of the instrument .This shows a trial administration of newly developed questionnaires in order to identify the potential -problem encountered by participant. Brink and Wood (1998:259; 373) explained that pre-testing enabled the researcher to interact with the participant similar but they were exclude from the real respondents participating in actual study. These ensure the researcher to predict what would happen to the main study regards to participation. Pilot study was conducted with five staff nurses with year of experience more than 1 at the same hospital but different target unit which they will not selected to participate in the actual study. No apparent problems were encountered during the completion of the questionnaires. 2.5.3 Structure of the questionnaires The questionnaire is conducted in Malay/English language and is assisted-administered questionnaire. The questionnaires will be distributed to the nurses in the unit by the researcher. The researcher needs to explain about the objectives, target population and significance of the study. Some of the respondents will answer the questions by themselves and some of them need assistance while answering the questionnaires. The data obtained will be statistically analyzed using SPSS software. An effective strategy for nurses will be formulated based on the findings. The questionnaire is distributed to the whole chosen unit consist of 30 registered nurses in HTAR. The questions based on a structured questionnaire that composed of three parts.(refer to the appendix) Part 1 that consists of demographic data : year of working experience Part 2 Question consists of six incident of contributing factors which potentially lead to medication error. Factor 1: This section using closed -ended question (dichotomous question) directed towards the knowledge regarding the process for medication administration. This questionnaire edited from study that had done by Raja Lexshimi R.G et al (2009). Factor 2-6: This section is questions regarding factors contribution to medication error edited from the result of study done by Fu et. al (2007) which categorized into five categories which using Likert scale. The respondents are asked to indicate how much the declarative statements given from each category will influence to contribute to medication error. Personal neglect Heavy workload Unfamiliarity with medication New staff Complicated order 2.6 Data Analysis To identify the level of knowledge among nurses towards serving medication .It is also to identify the most incident of contributing factors which lead to medication error. A significant value of 0.05 was used to test for significance for all statistical tests. The chi square analysis was performed to determine the association between incident of contributing factors and the years of experience. The data collected will be analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) version 18. 0. 2.7 Research Variable Dependent Variable In this study, the dependent variable is years of experience Independent Variable In this study, the independent variables are the 6 incident of contributing factors ; Knowledge, Personal Neglect, Heavy Workload, Unfamiliar Medication, Newly staff and Complicated order. 2.8 Validity and Variable According to Polit and Hungler (1999:418), validity is the degree to which an instrument measures what it is designed to measure. The content of the questionnaire is adapted from the previous survey and study that had been done. Moreover the questionnaire used will be reviewed by a philosophy doctors (PhD). 2.9 Ethical consideration Permission from HTAR will be obtained from hospital authority to conduct this research. Each participants who involve in this study will be given inform consent. Furthermore, before distributing the questionnaire, each participant will be explained about the purpose of the study and consent form was given to the participants. They are free to agree or decline their participation in the study at any time. All information obtained from the participants will be kept confidential. The participants took 15 to 30 minutes to answer the questionnaire and the researcher collected it back after finished answering. Polit and Hungler (1999: 131-134) revealed that researcher therefore need to exercise care that the rights of individuals and institution are safeguarded. Administer medication is an everyday activity in nursing practice and nurses should have enough knowledge in order to perform this important job. The finding of these study shows that nurses knowledge in serving medication is sufficient. Most of the f=29 (96.7%) registered nurses able to answer the questionnaire correctly automatically make knowledge as low incident that will contribute to medication error. Reflected from the result, King (2004) and Coombs et al have similar result which reported the same. Nurses have the knowledge but the knowledge is limited especially on drugs administration. 43.3% did not know the frequent recommended site for heparin injections is at the abdomen (Caffrey, 2003).Nurses should improved their knowledge and highlight on different route of administer medication. Gerry Helen (2003) reported that time-span of experience and level of professional education was linked with level of knowledge in the administration of medications. Having extra educational qualifications among nurses were found to have contributed to a improved knowledge of medications. However in this study, 26.7% nurses practice wrongly which they did not check the patients ID band prior administering medication. It is also surprise 23.3% nurses violate the practice by administering medication prepared by other nurses. Benners and others (2002) agree source of errors include delivering too much medication, missed doses; wrong route; and wrong medication deliver due to misidentification of client. Mattan (1998) revealed that administering medicine effectively was a aspect of practice but it lacked quality, which is due to poor knowledge in pharmacology and practice. Manias et al. (2004) indicated that nurses infatuated the necessary knowledge and skills in medication administration such as monitoring effects of medication, assessing and evaluating patients condition prior to medication administration. In many cases drug errors arise as a result of nurses failure to follow policy (Keill and Johnson, 1993). 2) Personal Neglect From the data analyse, 18 (60%) nurses show personal neglect is in the low incident contribute to medication error. Nevertheless 4(13.3%) nurses indicate in the middle of administering drug, there was interruptions by others. A new study shows that interrupting nurses while theyre nursing to patients medication needs increases the likelihood of error. As the number of distractions increases, so do the number of errors and the risk to patient safety.    According to the study reported in the April 26, 2010 issues of the  Archives of Internal Medicine, four interruptions in the route of a single drug administration doubled the likelihood that the patient would experience a major mishap. 26.7% nurses indicate that personal neglect as a medium indicator of medication error. 3)

Hotel Industry: Brand Image and Customer Loyalty

Hotel Industry: Brand Image and Customer Loyalty Hotel Brand Images: Exploring Customer Loyalty and Satisfaction Contents (Jump to) Introduction Rationale Aims and Objectives Hypothesis Statement Secondary Literature Review Primary Quantitative Research Literature Review Brand Identity and Image Brand Strategy and Customer Satisfaction Consumer Loyalty and Brand Image Hotel Brands and Consumers Conclusion and Implications Research Approach Survey Questionnaire Data Sampling H1: Consumer loyalty is not related to brand identity in hotels. H2: Consumer satisfaction is not related to brand image of hotels. Correlation Analysis Conclusion Introduction This research paper takes the position that branding and brand loyalty have become an important part of modern day business marketing. Accordingly, consumer perceptions, brand image, and market research are all important components of developing continuous brand image. The development of brand loyalty has a direct impact on today’s marketability and viability of a service or product in today’s competitive market. Brand loyalty has been considered to be the repetition of consumer purchase behaviour under the conditions of the consumer’s sensitivity to a product as on of the more prevailing trends in global hotel marketing (Kayaman and Arasli 2007). Other viewpoints describe brand loyalty as having an attitudinal measurement (Kayaman and Arasli 2007). Brand performance has several aspects: quality, price, credibility, value, trust, and consistency. Delgado-Ballester Munuera-Aleman (2001) suggested that core brand trust and brand image functions have a key role in developing consumer loyalty and is characterised by high involvement of the organisation in service quality. The ability of an organisation to hold onto a market position is highly based on its ability to gain new customers while retaining old customers. Gunter Heather (2007) showed that in the service industry, the ability of team members to complete a service to the customer is important in developing customer loyalty and increasing the customer’s perception of service quality. This research explores key performance indicators of brands as they impact consumer loyalty in the hotel industry. This is done by looking at the theories behind brand performance, which include market signalling theory as well as brand identity and brand image. The research examines the efficiency of internal operations of organisations as they impact brand consistency. These components are interrelated with evidence for consumer patronage and consumer loyalty, based on various factors that will be explored as being relative to building (or diminishing) consumer loyalty. The dissertation will utilise secondary research as a literature review to establish the components and relationships between brand identity, consumer loyalty, and brand strategy. The ultimate goal of this research is to describe how consumer’s build expectations and perceptions regarding a particular brand image and how consumer loyalty to a particular hotel can be managed through brand strategy. Rationale Dean (2001) made the conclusion that the hotel industry has suffered in stock value compared to other industries. In 2001, only the Hilton brand was present in the top 100 brand names, with a market value of 1.4 billion dollars (Dean 2001). This shows that there is a need to understand and describe customer loyalty in the hotel industry to further consumer patronage of hotels. The hotel industry, especially in the luxury sector, offers an experience of a product and service. Therefore, it stands to reason that the consistency the brand offers has a strong impact on the consumer’s perception. Kandampully Suhartanto (2000) showed that hotel consistency should revolve around the internal performance of housekeeping, reception, food and beverages, as well as price and value to be considered competitive and to maintain consumer loyalty. This research is rationalised by the idea that understanding customer loyalty based on satisfaction in these arenas impacts market value, and thus can assist hoteliers in world wide competition. Aims and Objectives The aim of this dissertation is based on the above rationale and is focused on consumer based perceptions of hotel brands. The goal is to explore and examine the factors of customer loyalty, customer satisfaction, and hotel branding for the betterment of organisation’s operating in the hotel industry. Thus, the research aims to develop stronger market value through brand identity and brand image perceptions of the customer. The objectives to reach this aim are to first, describe the relationships between brand identity and customer loyalty through secondary literature review research. The next objective is to utilise primary quantitative survey methods to statistically evaluate the impact of the relationships between customer satisfaction and brand identity on customer loyalty. The end results should lead towards a description of the occurrence of customer loyalty perceptions in the hotel industry based on the factors of brand identity and customer satisfaction described in th e literature review. Hypothesis Statement Based on the aims and objectives of the research, the following hypotheses are to be explored through quantitative data: H1: Consumer loyalty is not related to brand identity in hotels. H1.0: Consumer loyalty is related to brand identity in hotels. H2: Consumer satisfaction is not related to brand image of hotels. H2.0: Consumer satisfaction is related to brand image of hotels. Secondary Literature Review The secondary literature review will be conducted to establish the variables and factors that develop the above hypothesis. In this, the research has chosen to utilise mainly scholarly journal databases, including Sage Journals Online, EbscoHost, and Thomspon-Gale. Each of these databases is peer-reviewed and scholarly, as well as international, which allows for a holistic focus on the issues of consumer loyalty from a global viewpoint. The point that each of these journal databases is international is important as this research focuses on the hotel industry as a whole, not on the hotel industry in any particular nation. The research was conducted using the Boolean search terms of ‘brand identity’ and ‘consumer loyalty;’ ‘brand identity’ and ‘consumer satisfaction’; ‘brand image’ and ‘consumer satisfaction’; ‘brand image’ and ‘consumer loyalty’; ‘consumer satisfaction’ and ‘consumer loyalty’; ‘brand identity’ and ‘brand image.’ Results were then sifted through based on date and current relevance to organisational branding, hotel branding, or market branding. This was important to do as some research findings were not related to the actual research, some findings that were unrelated and had to be removed included gender bias, cow procreation, and other unrelated terms. Future secondary literature review research will focus on stronger Boolean search terms to remove unwanted topics and prevent unnecessary time extensions. The secondary literature review is utilised to establish the questions in the quantitative survey as well as to establish relationships between each hypotheses statement. Primary Quantitative Research Primary quantitative research was chosen for this study as it allows for statistical and objective evidence to be presented and to accept or reject the stated hypotheses. The choice and rationale for the primary quantitative research is explored further in the methodology section. For this short introduction, quantitative research allows for specific information regarding the occurrences of customer loyalty and satisfaction, which can act as a precursor for further qualitative research later. Furthermore, the use of surveys allows the researcher to make specific and numerically succinct statements regarding the subjects at hand, from the customer’s perception. The research approach is deductive, meaning that it is theory testing rather than inductive, which is theory generating. In this manner the research proposes to accept or reject the hypothesis and establish the relationship between hotel brand identity-image and consumer loyalty-satisfaction. Branding is method of determining an organisation’s competitive position based on consumer perceptions, where the organisation’s position to competitors impacts consumer choices (Daffey and Abratt 2002). In corporations, branding has increased in recent importance, particularly in leisure and travel services, where increased attention has been placed on service branding in hotels, retail, and banking industries (Hatch and Schultz 2003). Research identified the need for branding as it pertains to the brand image and brand identity, which separates the brand based on the internal components of the industry or organisation as well as it is congruent with shared values and meanings identified by both the organisation and consumer perceptions (Hatch and Schultz 2003). Thus, the relationship between brand identity, brand image, and consumer perception for leisure services, such as hotels, has become imperative to describing the marketing needs of an organisation. Brand Identity and Image Brand identity is an antecedent to brand image, thus what the organisation puts forth as its brand identity impacts the consumer’s perception of brand image (Daffey and Abratt 2002). The focus can be placed on the interface within brand identity and consumer perception of brand image, which involved the corporate branding method and the manner in which it is perceived by the consumer, thus impacting the consumer’s identification with the brand and increasing or decreasing the consumer’s perceived brand value (Daffey and Abratt 2002). Conceptually, brand identity is the organisation’s marketing mission in regards to the brands vision and values (Kapferer 2004). Brand identity is thus fulfilled by the organisation’s competence towards its internal and external vision, aims, and values (Kapferer 2004). This means that brand identity is an articulation of the organisation’s ethos, which incorporates the individualistic image that a competitor pla ces on its products, where the goal is to differentiate the service or product definition from other brand identities (Kapferer 2004). The statement has been made that brand identity has three main goals (Albert and Whetten 2003). The first of these goals are to capture the organisation’s essential service or product paradigm (Albert and Whetten 2003). Secondly, the organisations brand identity should exhibit and define its meaning towards consumers; and thirdly this meaning allows the brand to be differentiated and exhibited with continuity in the consumer’s mindset (Albert and Whetten 2003). Bosch (2006) examined that the construction of brand identity is to involve the elemental intent of the organisation’s product or service, where the organisation’s reputation is relevant to the personality of the brand identity set forth by the marketing strategy (Bosch 2006). Thus, brand identity becomes an organisation’s operational strategy that allows it to enhance or integrate an internal vision to external customers, thereby shaping the customer’s purchase intentions and value-ad ded perceptions towards that brand. As noted, brand identity precedes brand image. Brand image is imperative to gaining consumer validation and retention. When an organisation sets forth an image that is favourable in the mindset of the consumers, it inherently builds a specific competitive advantage (Aaker 1997). Brand image is a construction of consumer perceptions of the brand, and therefore is based on the most recent mindset of beliefs that the consumer holds towards the brand itself (Nandan 2005). The consumer’s perceptions and feelings are based on the brand identity, as well as the consumer’s experiences and relationships with the organisation (Nandan 2005).Thus, brand image has a strong value for an organisation and is ascertained to create a distinctive and sustainable competitive advantage (Aaker 1997). It is therefore defined that brand image is the meaning of connection between the consumer and the organisation’s product or service, where the goal is to increase consumer loyalty in the net result of the marketing strategy (Aaker 1997). This net result is impacted by the consumer’s perception of the brand (Aaker 1997). This consumer perception is built by experiences with the brand and the impressions the brand leaves with the customer, thus altering the customer’s beliefs and feelings towards the product (Aaker 1997). This alteration of the consumer perception creates the consumer’s behaviour and attitude about a product or service (Aaker 1997). The link between brand identity and brand image has been noted to be largely based on the role of communication that forms consumer perceptions as they pertain to branding (Harris and de Chernatory 2001). However, some confusion as to the specific role of marketing brand identity and the formulation of brand image exists. While some researchers explore that consumer perception is built based on such marketing communications (Harris and de Chernatory 2001), others substantiate that brand image is not a result of brand identity marketing, but of the experiences of consumers with the product and service of the brand (Chun and Davies 2006). This means that the external communications of the organisation, noted in the above paragraphs to be centred on exposing the value, aims and intentions of the brand (Kapferer 2004) have less impact on the consumer’s mindset than the consumers actual experiences with the brand (Chun and Davies 2006). This is especially true in the service orient ed industries, such as hotels, where service context related firms are more likely to gain or lose brand image in the customer’s mindset based on consumer experiences with the service (O’Cass and Grace 2004). Consumer experiences such as word of mouth, poor service relationships, and negative service receipt are more likely to impact the perception of a brand image than the organisation’s marketing strategy of the brand’s identity (O’Cass and Grace 2004). In this relationship, the role of service employees and their relationship with the customer becomes an integral part of building a brand image, where the recognition of employees to the brand identity as well as towards delivering a positive customer service experience is more important to sustainable brand image than any other factor (Hardaker and Fill 2005). This is because the employee operating in a service context, such as a hotel, is the first point of contact the consumer has with the bran d (Hardaker and Fill 2005). Thus, the experience a consumer has with an employee of a service based industry has multiple interfaces as the employee’s value, the brand identity, and the consumer’s perception, all of which create the brand image (O’Cass and Grace 2004). Brand Strategy and Customer Satisfaction It stands to reason that if consumers create a perception of a brand image based on their level of satisfaction, then there is an inherent link between brand image and customer satisfaction. This was established as a positive image towards consumer satisfaction increases consumer loyalty, where it is postulated that the relationship also develops consumer loyalty (Chun and Davies 2006). In this relationship, there is a congruent development between brand identities, as it is externally presented by the organisation, and consumer satisfaction as it is internally perceived by the consumer (Chun and Davies 2006). The development is that a firm utilises brand strategy, as this has the ability to increase brand loyalty when it ensures that the relationship between brand identity and image is congruent and consistent, as it applies to influencing consumer loyalty (Nandan 2005). Thus, brand identity has an increased positive relationship that is established between the customer’s per ception of satisfaction, the development of loyalty, and the brand’s image (Nandan 2005). Consumer promotions are one method that organisations use to increase brand awareness, and thus establish brand identity. Consumer promotions include coupons and sweepstakes, but increasingly include loyalty programs such as points for repurchases. These types of sales promotions are have the targeted goal of increasing repurchase intentions of final purchases (Kotler and Armstrong 2002). Consumer sales promotions are just as various as brands themselves, existing as incentives for purchasing or repurchasing, while others attempt to communicate the nature of the organisation (Kotler and Armstrong 2002). Some promotions will be based on pricing discounts, while others are non-priced based, such as additional products or special services (Kotler and Armstrong 2002). Consumer promotion is a traditional brand strategy that is thought to enhance consumer loyalty by offering special rewards for repurchasing a service or product (Kotler and Armstrong 2002). Thus, it is supposed that consume r promotions influence the consumer by enhancing how the customer cognitively perceives the value of a service or product (Kotler and Armstrong 2002). Value, as the difference between price and received goods, is the object that creates price perception. Price perception, in turn, establishes how a customer values the brand’s overall image, and thus if the consumer is willing to purchase the brand (Schiffman and Kanuk 2004). Price perceptions can be both positive and negative. In luxury instances, higher prices for higher levels of services are considers attributes to the consumer’s success, and therefore the repurchase intentions may be based on the intrinsic value the consumer places on the actual service receipt, rather than the cost of the service (Moore et al 2003). Price and customer loyalty therefore become complex, as in some cases very low prices for a luxury brand, or over-promotion of the brand, lead to devaluation of the brand, where the consumer finds less value for the same service offered at a lower price (Moore et al 2003). This leads towards product quality perceptions, where the superiority of a service is approached by the consumer based on the consumer’s expectations of the service (Moore et al 2003). Consumers may place a judgement upon the quality of a service based on the information they have received through brand identity strategies regarding the service, when this information is not congruent with the customer’s received service, there is a negative gap in customer satisfaction (Schiffman and Kanuk 2004). Consumer judgements are created by intrinsic and extrinsic information (Schiffman and Kanuk 2004). The concern is that there is a gap between brand identities put forth by the organisation and brand images received, or perceived, by the consumers (Hatch and Schultz 2003). This gap exists when the internal identities of the organisation, as they relate to the values and ideals of the organisation, are not externally perceived by the consumer (Hatch and Schultz 2003; Chun and Davies 2006). Thus, the need for a brand strategy that bridges this gap for increased customer perceptions becomes a managerial goal to narrow the gap (Harris and de Chernatony 2001). This need for gap reduction is stated to be a holistic need, where brand strategy is centred on the ability of the organisation to ensure that all employees are able to breach the gaps and have the same values and aims that the organisations places external brand marketing importance upon (Harris and de Chernatony 2001). Emphatically, this means that strategy towards the brand image is highly reliant upon the internal brand identi ty of the organisation and the external brand image the customer forms (Harris and de Chernatony 2001). Thus, there is an increased need in brand development and strategy for organisations to match the consumer’s needs and perceptions with the brand’s identity, which in turn will increase consumer loyalty but not necessarily consumer satisfaction (Chun and Davies 2006). Consumer Loyalty and Brand Image Conceptualizing the link between customer satisfaction and customer loyalty has several dimensions (Oliver 1999). In this, satisfaction has the asymmetric consequence towards the development of consumer loyalty, yet consumer loyalty does not impact consumer satisfaction in the same manner (Oliver 1999). A consumer that has been traditionally loyal to a particular brand will not simply choose the brand after a dissatisfactory service experience simply because they have formed a habit of being loyal to that brand (Oliver 1999). Chun and Davies (2006) examined that a brand’s image can impact consumer loyalty based on the experiences of a customer in regards to the brand service delivery by employees. This means that employees are frequently the heart of a service brands image, and the front line of the ability of a brand to build consumer loyalty. Furthermore, employees are the most frequent determination of a consumer’s mindset towards a brand, which in turn impacts the consumers perception and frequency of loyalty towards the brand (O’Cass and Grace 2004). Thus, it is implied that employees are the foundation of building service brand images, and the employee of the service brand has the strongest impact of brand identity communication in the customer’s mindset (O’Cass and Grace 2004). Thus, what occurs is a service brand dimension where the employee, rather than the organisation, becomes the forefront for brand image formulation, which establishes that employees are the ambassador’s of a brand image (Harris and de Chernatony 2001). For the leisure and travel sectors, employees act as the interface between the consumer’s service needs and the brand image formation (Harris and de Chernatony 2001). Therefore, the consumer’s internal perceptions of a brand are enhanced or diminished by the service experience and communications of employees, which in turn results in future commitments to brand loyalty when these experiences and communications are positively perceived by the customer (Harris and de Chernatony 2001). Consumer satisfaction and loyalty are dependent on the consumers perceived value of a brand image. In early work regarding the subject, Oliver (1997) showed that consumer satisfaction is the ability of a service to fulfil the consumer’s need, thus it is based upon the response of the organisation towards fulfilling what the consumer believes, or perceives, to be important and of value. The ability of the consumer to develop a perception regarding the service of a brand is based upon a consumer’s judgement regarding the provisions of services and products and the pleasure that the customer receives, intrinsically, from the consumption of the product or service (Oliver 1997). Oliver’s (1999) later work established that consumer loyalty is a strong commitment of the consumer to repurchase the product or service in a consistent manner, based on the previous judgements that the consumer held, which are further enabled by both the customer’s and the organisation’s behaviours and attitudes towards the brand’s identity and image (Oliver 1999). Consumer attitudes have several components. First, the cognitive component establishes the rational appeal of a product or service, where the consumer makes a decision based on characteristics the consumer determines to be imperative to filling a consumer need (Rowley and Dawes 1999). The affective component is established as the emotional connections a consumer develops with the service, such as fulfilling a social or status need by purchasing a particular brand (Rowley and Dawes 1999). Lastly, the cognitive components of consumer attitudes are those that are relative to the consumers’ behavioural patterns (Rowley and Dawes 1999). Cognitive components are based on the consumer’s previously formed behaviour patterns, for example the difference between a hedonic and utilitarian purchaser. A hedonic behaviour pattern is where a consumer purchases a product based on the ability to receive a particular emotional need, such as societal satisfaction (Rowley and Dawes 1999). A utilitarian purchaser focuses on the physical needs of a product’s ability to fulfil a gap in the customer’s necessary purchase intentions (Rowley and Dawes 1999). This is further established by Chun and Davies (2006), where consumer loyalty as a behavioural and attitudinal aspect contains strong intrinsic characteristics built by the needs of the consumer and compared to the ability of the organisation to deliver towards these needs, which in turn develops the consumer’s attitudes and behaviours towards a brand. Yet consumer perception and brand loyalty is not only direc ted by behaviours and attitudes, it is also built by cognition of the brand and its associative value (Jones and Taylor 2007). In this, while attitudes and behaviours are important, the customer also may be inclined to cognitively assess the price that has been paid against the service or product received, which is the basic foundation of consumer’s perceived value (Jones and Taylor 2007). Hotel Brands and Consumers Consumers of hotel services seek consistently reliable service with fair to high quality and an affordable price within their perception of affordability (Dube and Reneghan 2000). Hoteliers place strong significance towards consumer satisfaction as this impacts the hotel’s perceived brand image (Dube and Reneghan 2000). What occurs is the brand hotel begins to operate based on its quality of service by delivering service value information to the customer before the customer views or uses the service product (Bruicks, Zeithaml and Naylor 2000). This means that as consumers seek out a particular amount of service quality to fulfil the gap between their needs and the service receipt, hoteliers are simultaneously awarding service quality based statements towards their internal brand identity and external brand image (Bruicks, Zeithaml and Naylor 2000). Effectively, brand images are built with multiple brand scopes achieved, where larger hotel chains offer several brand images with their end consumer’s perception of value and quality in mind (Dube and Reneghan 2000). Thus the hotel’s brand strategy is to develop brand value based on service awareness, rather than service receipt, as well as the quality of perception in the consumer’s mind, leading towards consumer satisfaction (Aaker 1991). As brand strategy leads towards the sight unseen ideal of gaining customer satisfaction, researchers have explored that hotels with higher consumer satisfaction for a perceived high value or high quality service are less conscientious about price and promotions, but more consciences in regards to service receipt and the quality of service (Dube and Reneghan 2000). Brand strategy of hoteliers focuses on increasing operational success of their overall brand measurements, where the ideal strategic viewpoint is to gain market share from the brand strategy (Ekinci 2002). However, the hotel industry has mixed results from brand strategies and brand images (Ekinci 2002). These mixed results are due to consumer’s perceptions of the brand image and brand quality (Ekinci 2002). The divergence exists when brand growth and consumer quality perceptions create a gap between the consumer’s expected service quality from the brand identity and the consumer’s receipt of service qu ality (Ekinci 2002). Pricing and promotion models also create a gap in expectations and perceptions (Ekinci 2002). This occurs because of the market signalling theory, which explains that consumers may expect higher quality from organisations with higher market shares, which increases the demand for future business and services (Helloffs Jacobson, 1999). In the hospitality industry, as market share leaders become more visible to consumers through brand identity and brand marketing strategy, advertising messages become aligned with the high market share and high quality perceptions (Helloffs Jacobson 1999). Size of the hotel chain, amenities, desirable locations, and similar services at various locations all become part of hoteliers brand marketing strategies as they gain market share. However, there is the concern that strategic brand management may cause a negative relationship between brand image, market share, and consumer’s perceived expectations of quality (Helloffs J acobson 1999). Some studies examine that consumer’s expectations of quality increase as market share increases, yet the consumer’s satisfaction with a service decreases almost simultaneously (Helloffs Jacobson 1999). Therefore, market signalling theory, as it applies to a hospitality organisation’s externally presented brand identity, may not be the precursor to adequate consumer satisfaction and the consumer’s internal perception of the brand’s image. Hoteliers are very aware of the needs for strong consumer focus, yet multiple hospitality organisations have differing perspectives regarding the customer’s needs and perceptions. For example, hoteliers may focus on strong franchise development, based on tourism locations, and typically focus on the customer needs of service continuity, as offering the same services at each tourism franchise location (Linder 2001). However, another line of thought is that corporate development and managerial strategy, rather than the franchise consumer, is more important in building brand identity to customer awareness (Linder 2001). Thus, there is a divergence in hotelier’s management strategy between the continuity of service franchises and the value of service towards the customer. There is some evidence that hoteliers have a brand identity need to respond to the customer’s concerns of cost and quality, but also to decide the level of service continuity within the franchiseâ⠂¬â„¢s, or in the lack of franchising, to respond to the needs of quality in the consumer’s service receipt (Michael 2000). One interesting component of this relationship is that franchising actually has a negative impact on quality, but service continuity has a positive impact (Michael 2000). Thus, the consumer may expect the same service quality at each hotel location, but is not likely to receive the same level of quality at each franchise location (Michael 2000). However, when the customer’s level of perceived quality does not have a gap in service continuity between franchise or hotel locations, then there is a strong positive relationship (Michael 2000). There is a negative relationship when service quality of a particular brand image that the customer has a created a specific internal perceptions are not equivocal, leaving a gap between what the customer believed would occur in values and quality, and what the customer believed they received in value and Bertolt Brecht: Using Comedy As Political Device Bertolt Brecht: Using Comedy As Political Device Bertolt Brecht, born in Augsberg Germany 1898, was a highly influential playwright, director and innovative performance theorist, making a major contribution to dramaturgy and theatrical production that continues to be portrayed within theatres and on stage to this date. His ideas and theories regarding political theatre reject the naturalistic system put forward many years before by Konstantin Stanislavski and attempted to persuade an audience to want to make a difference in society. In his early twenties, Brecht began to have an aversion to the capitalist society he was brought up in and sought after a more equal approach to the world and people around him. This was when he began his exploration into Marxism: a political philosophy, often referred to as a form of socialism, which emphasises the importance of the class struggle in society and maintains the belief that everyone is equal. This is a viewpoint that Brecht remained loyal to throughout the rest of his life and career with a certain level of Marxist influence being noticeably present in each of his plays and productions. Marxists believe in a socialist society that does not distinguish between classes of people. Marxists tend to be working class people or the proletariat and these fellow Marxists, i.e. the proletariat, were the people Brecht intended his plays for. He wanted to use his talent within the theatre to connect with the working class people in order to change the capitalist oppression under which he lived. His plays rejected the naturalistic stage style and portrayed the world at the time in a way that would enable each spectator to adopt a critical awareness of the action they saw on stage. Brecht laid down a system of performance and production techniques in order to create an atmosphere within the theatre that would prevent the audience from hanging their brains up with their hats in the cloakroom (Anon; www.delamere-arts.com.) The use of these techniques within theatre production is now formally known as Epic Theatre. Brecht intended his theatre to be both didactical (though not dull or boring) and dialectical, and believed that in order to make an audience pay attention to what they are seeing and hearing from the stage they must be distanced from the action (i.e. the audience see the stage as a stage and the actors as actors.) Epic theatre aims to create this production of thought in the spectators, creating a distance between them and the action through the use of a technique known as verfremdungseffekt or V-effekt. Roughly translated as the making strange effect, the V-effekt is a technique which solely intends to make the audience aware they are in a theatre at all times, enabling them to adopt an attitude of inquiry and criticism in their approach to the action. The audience must at no time during an epic play be seen to be in a trance or take what they see on stage for granted. Richard Schechner (2006) claims that the best way to think of the V-effekt is as a way to drive a wedge between th e actor, the character, the staging (including blocking, design, music and any other production element) so that each is able to bounce off, and comment upon, the others. In this an actor may pay a complete disregard for the fourth wall (a naturalistic staging and acting technique) directly addressing the audience in speeches, there may also be the use of a narrator (such as the Street Singer in The Threepenny Opera), songs and explanatory placards to interrupt the action and thus distance the audience from what they are watching. Other techniques Brecht introduced to the stage included the use of Gestus, or Gestureà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ with attitude (Mumford, 2008, p.54) which sees the actors conveying the intentions of a performance through tableaux, a single gesture or voice inflection. An example of this was portrayed in the National Theatres production of The Caucasian Chalk Circle (Holmes; 2007) which saw the governors wife, Natella smoking over the babys pram. This showed her complete lack of love and care for her child. This, in itself, maintains a distance between audience and action in that a spectator is able to see the difference between actor and character, with an actor offering personal opinion through their actions and their use of such gestures. This distancing effect can also be created, as stated by Richard Schechner (2006) previously, by other production elements including the use of harsh, bright lighting, multi-role acting, visible set changes completed by the actors themselves, the use of half -curtains and also music and songs that clash with the action, providing further comment on the action about the themes and ideas. Brecht wanted his spectators to enjoy themselves and feel comfortable within the theatre, comparing his audiences to those at a boxing match or in a public house (smoking, chatting leisurely.) Brecht insisted that, maintaining these techniques and ideas, plays should be fun and playful (Lyon Breuer, 1992, p. 95.) He believed that the use of Spass, the German word for fun, adds to the effectiveness and overall power of the political and social messages each and every one of his play emits. Research into Brechts beliefs (Eddershaw, 1996) show that criticism through fun (spass) is a vital element in Brechts notion of effective theatreà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ to encourage a working class audience. Brecht believed that a theatre that cannot be laughed in is a theatre to be laughed at. Humourless people are ridiculous (Brecht as cited by Bradby McCormick, 1978, p.112). He found influential examples of spass in arts such as cabaret and silent films (Brecht is said to be a big fan of silent actor C harlie Chaplin.) Comedy, as Brecht believed, is a historically bound phenomenon (Wright, 1989, p.49) that is intended for political purpose. With this in mind, Brecht used comedy as a political device within most, if not all of his plays. His dialectical theatre focuses on what would have been categorised as comedy at the time at which a play was written but has since become an anachronism (Willett Manheim, 1985, p.2). Brecht believed that: Comedy quotes what has never been natural. It is laughter at the not natural which provides the leverage to escape the ideological determinations of society. Brecht finds the source of comedy in the nature of society rather than in the nature of an individual. (Wright, 1989, p.49/50) Many believe that because of this approach to the theatre, Brechts plays (especially the use of comedy as a political device) no longer have the same affect on contemporary culture as they would have done on an audience of Brechts time. Characters he created to mock society, highlighting the class struggle and the capitalist oppression of his time appear satirical and stereotypical within modern day culture. Although, many critics maintain the belief that this use of satirical humour within the characters in his plays enhances the dialecticism of his work many others believe that without background knowledge of Brechts intentions within his theatre and instead of distancing the audience, such comedy brings them together in laughter. However, in saying this and at the time of writing his plays, Brecht was ingenious in his implementation of comedy within his plays. He did not force comedy at or onto an audience but instead used two contrasting acting styles at the side of one another, cleverly placing a down-to-earth, normal character alongside an embellished character. Both characters make political statements while one is also able to show the other character up. A good example of this can be found in The Caucasian Chalk Circle with the characters of the governors wife, Natella, drunken judge, Azdak and the peasant maid, Grusha within the scene of The Chalk Circle. Grusha maintains a sophisticated characterisation while the characters of both Natella and Azdak appear to mock the upper classes within society. This scene suggests that although Natella might have more money and be better dressed, Grusha still proves to be the better mother after all. This emphasises a strong socio-political message that materialism i.e. how much money a person has or how they look does not mean everything or even anything, it is what is inside a person that counts. As well as this, the scene also adds to the dialecticism of this particular play in that it appears to create a debate within the audience as a whole and also in the mind of the individual spectator as to who should, could and/or would be the better mother. It became well-known as Brecht delivered more and more plays and productions that he brought in comedy with a constant element of surprise, both because all was not always as it seemed on stage but also several different styles of acting were able to sit alongside each other and exist together (as shown above.) This technique acts as both a political device in showing the hierarchy within a capitalist society but also distances the audience with comedy. By using comedy, or spass, as a distancing technique whilst also highlighting the political and social messages of the play, Brecht was able to successfully achieve his aim of enabling an audience to adopt a critical awareness of what they saw on stage. This meant that the audience were more likely to leave the theatre wanting to make a change to the capitalist society that they were part of. Brechtian techniques, including his specific techniques involving comedy, are widely and very commonly used in contemporary cultural practice. However many claim that, nowadays, this is more than likely for an aesthetic value rather than to provide a political message and/or to add dialecticism to a performance or production. For example, TV crime drama programme, Hustle follows a small group of long-con artists during their everyday lives and through their work e.g. as they con other members of society out of money or possession. There is a constant hint of Brechtian influence throughout each episode with the use of Gestus (gestures such as hand movements and voice inflections that remind the viewer that they are watching con artists whilst they are at work), v-effekt (including direct address to camera and the con artists stepping out of character (i.e. the character adopted for the con) from time to time to explain their tricks to the audience) and also the use of spass within the characterisation of the victims of the cons (For example, a rich but clumsy, married businessman easily falling for and being seduced by the female of the con artists who is playing the part of another female within society). This use of spass within the piece is essential to enable the socio-political messages of each episod e to be conveyed to the audience. The con artists prove themselves to be different to what a stereotypical con artist is perceived to be in that they only con people of a higher class than themselves who are greedy, cheats and/or liars. They are portrayed as normal, down-to-earth human beings of a range of race, age, sex and colour. The characterisations of the victims of the cons they trick are generally stereotypical with each and every one of them being of a higher class (e.g. using queens English or Received Pronunciation, wearing business suits etc.) This conveys a sort of Robin Hood effect in that they are stealing from the rich but in order to teach them the lesson that they shouldnt cheat, lie etc. As described above, it is easy to see how this programme may be perceived as a contemporary example of the Brechtian use of comedy as a political device. This programme uses the general idea of spass by sending up the bad guys i.e. the members of a higher class, inviting the audie nce to laugh at these characters and also condemning what they stand for. However, as the programme is not strictly Brechtian in that the con artists are actually actors playing con artists (spectators are only made aware of this during the titles of the programme) it is questionable as to whether such Brechtian techniques were used in order to present a specific socio-political message or whether it was just for aesthetic purposes. It is also hard to tell whether the director intended to assist (Brechtian technique) or just plainly create the gaze of his/her audience Within Brechts plays and productions it is plain to see his attempt to assist the thought production or gaze within an audience i.e. how and what they interpret from the action they see on stage. Using a dialectical approach, Brechtian plays provide options and provoke debate, encouraging an audience member to create their own judgement and opinion regarding the action that they see on stage and so also critiquing how they see society around them and gaining their own understanding of it. In The Caucasian Chalk Circle, for example, a director may choose to provide the audience with other options e.g. the option for Grusha to leave baby Michael behind rather than to flee with him. This gaze between the spectator and the stage is essential and very important to Brechtian epic theatre, in order to get across any social or political message, a play is trying to convey, to the target audience i.e. a working class audience. A good contemporary stage example of this idea would be the work o f Mark Ravenhill. A very controversial playwright of the current time, Ravenhill is well-known for being highly influenced by Brecht. In his first play, Shopping and Fucking, Ravenhill set out to shock this audience to make them step back and question what they saw on stage, comparing this to the society they live in making them question that also. The play opens with a young man and woman, Robbie and Lulu, attempting to feed another young man, Mark, who is suffering or going cold turkey after attempting to quite heroin. This protagonist within the narrative also vomits on the stage. In most productions of this play the spectators are able to see the possibility of different outcomes for different characters. Using the names of a very well-known boy band called Take That as the character names within the place, this creates comedy within the piece to convey political messages as the audience will be very aware of any comparisons or contrasts that may be made between the characters o n stage and the members of the boy band. The play explores the breakdown of self value within people in society and the effect on the people since the announcement by Margaret Thatcher (1987) that there is no such thing as society. Although there is only a glimpse of Brechtian influence within the play, there is a clear socio-political message being portrayed and conveyed to the audience throughout the play. But, in saying this, we must always bear in mind that Brechtian signs and language was and is always intended to be read more than once e.g. the play (and so the socio-political message) is first read and interpreted by the actor before it is conveyed to the spectator, on stage, by the actor: what Brecht gives us to read is, by a kind of disengagement, the readers gaze, not directly the object of his reading; for this object reaches us only by the act of intellection (an alienated act) of a first reader who is already on the stage. (Barthes, 1986, p.219). However, with this being said, any interpretation of a Brechtian play made within contemporary cultural practice may prove unsuccessful in achieving Brechts official intentions due to the advance and change in society and societal values. In every play he wrote and directed, Brechts main aim was to make a change. He wanted his idea of theatre and the plays he wrote to encourage an audience to commit to social change, making them leave the theatre wanting to change the way they, and other around them, live their lives. Comedy within the theatre, to Brecht, was essential in order for him to connect with this target audience of the proletariat or working-class members of society. He found that criticism through spass was the easiest way to convey his socio-political messages in that it enabled a v-effekt, or distancing effect, between the action on stage and the audience. This gaze between the action and spectator is highly important in that, although Brecht would assist this gaze by providing the action and different options etc, he essentially wanted his spectators to make their own minds up and make their own decisions regarding what they saw on stage. However, due to the advance and change within society and societal values since Brecht wrote his plays, theories and techniques, the comedy Brecht used within his plays, has since been translated in contemporary cultural practice into a highly satirical manner, in which members of a higher class of society are mocked and stereotyped. In a modern theatre and within contemporary cultural practice, this would be more likely to bring an audience together in comedy rather than assisting the individual to adopt a critical awareness of the world that they live in. 2846